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arXiv Machine Learning By Oktay Karaku\c{s}, Can Eyupoglu

Terrain signatures in Welsh settlement names

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The study examined 3,757 Welsh settlements to determine whether place names encode measurable environmental information. Using a 24‑element lexical framework, researchers compared settlements with high‑terrain elements (e.g., *bryn*, *mynydd*) to those with low‑terrain elements (e.g., *cwm*, *pant*), finding that high‑terrain names were located on average 24.4 m higher than their 2‑km surroundings. Adding terrain‑name polarity to spatial models improved predictive accuracy by up to 7.3 % across various spatial blocking schemes, though results varied by region and were limited by residual spatial structure and lack of external replication.

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